Roots of the Republic

Aristotle (b. 384 – d. 322 BC)  The founders borrowed heavily from Aristotle including mixed government (separation of powers) and that Happiness equals Virtue. Virtue, as it was understood by Aristotle meant the pursuit, education for, and practice of virtue. He also had a mistrust of Monarchs and masses (mob rule). Aristotle also elaborated on the principle that the rulers of a state should be subject to the same laws as the rest of the populace.

Polybius (b.200 - d. 118 BC) The General Histories of Polybius, translated by Mr Hampton (1756) -  The origin of the idea that liberty could be preserved through the separation of powers endures through the arguments of Polybius. His in-depth discussion of checks and balances to limit power, and his introduction of "the people" was influential on Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws, John Locke's Two Treatises and the framers of the U.S. Constitution. Polybius’ account of the origins of justice bear a striking resemblance to the moral theories that Adam Smith would later articulate in The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Madison used the writings of Polybius in The Federalist Papers No. 63, referring to ancient republican governments and he dictates Federalist 47 entirely to the separation of powers. 

Cicero (b. 106 - d. 43 BC) "the father of eloquence and philosophy" - Thomas Jefferson. Cicero's greatest achievement is his attitude towards natural law which can be seen as the foundation of later European natural law theories on the concept of inalienable rights. John Adams wrote that, “as all the ages of the world have not produced a greater statesman and philosopher united in the same character, his authority should have great weight”. 

Blackstone's Commentaries - Blackstone's Commentaries was the Founder's most important and widely-owned law book. Blackstone had “the most profound influence on shaping the legal thought of the Revolutionary and Founding generations.” All of our formative founding documents were drafted by attorneys steeped in Blackstone’s Commentaries. 

James Burgh's Political Disquisitions -  These books were a significant influence on many of the Founders. Edited by Burgh's friend Benjamin Franklin, they discussed many important issues of government from liberty, freedom of speech and press, right to bear arms, taxation w/o representation, and British oppression. 

Montesquieu's Spirit of Laws -  His greatest work, published in 1748 anonymously, Spirit of Laws, is a comparative study of three types of government: republic, monarchy, and despotism. Montesquieu argued that the best way to secure liberty and prevent a government from becoming corrupted was to divide the powers of government among different actors who would check each other. 

The Federalist - The Federalist, is a collection of 85 articles and essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay under the collective pseudonym "Publius" to promote the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. The collection was commonly known as The Federalist until the name The Federalist Papers emerged in the 20th century. 

Adam Smith "Wealth of Nations" (1776) - Perhaps the most enduring work of the Scottish Enlightenment, 'The Wealth of Nations' was Adam Smith's great masterwork on economic theory. It is the foundation for all modern economic thought and political economy, The Wealth of Nations introduces the world to the very idea of economics and capitalism in the modern sense of the words.

Adam Smith "Theory of Moral Sentiments" (1759) - Smith considered this his Magnus Opus. He states that our moral ideas and actions are a product of our very nature as social creatures. Self-interest and sympathy (empathy), justice and beneficence, virtue and prudence are identified as basic rules needed for society to survive. Smith's concept of an impartial spectator is an imaginary person that guides our decisions by virtually judging our actions according to common moral principles.

Milton's "Aeropagitica" (1644)-  Aeropagitica is the most famous of all defenses of freedom of the press. Jefferson considered Milton one of his heroes and put Aeropagitica on his reading list for young disciples.  A classic line is "... he who destroys a good book, kills reason itself.” 

Gordon and Trenchard's Cato's Letters (1724) - Named after Cato the Younger, this collection of 144 essays include the defense of Freedom of Speech, of Liberty, the right to redress grievances and was probably read by more of the founders than any other writings. In the history of political liberty, as well as freedom of speech and press, no 18th-century work exerted more influence on the founders than Cato's Letters. 

Algernon Sidney's Discourses Concerning Government (1698) - His most famous work, his writings cost him his head in 1683. Sidney directly opposed the divine right of the king and his political theories included limited govt, consent of the people and the rights citizens to alter or abolish a corrupt government. "Discourses" has been called "the textbook of the American Revolution."

John Locke's "Two Treatises" (1689) -  Two Treatises of Government is a work of political philosophy published anonymously in 1689 by John Locke. The First Treatise attacks patriarchalism in the form of sentence-by-sentence refutation of Robert Filmer's Patriarcha, which argues in support of the divine right of kings, while the Second Treatise outlines Locke's ideas for a more civilized society based on natural rights and contract theory. This text laid the foundation for modern forms of democracy and for the Constitution of the United States. 

Thomas Paine was born an Englishman and came to America in late 1774, due to the recommendation of Benjamin Franklin. Common Sense Pamphlet  - Common Sense may well be the most influential polemic in all of American history. Published anonymously in January, 1776, six months before the Declaration of Independence, this incendiary call for Americans to revolt against British rule converted millions to the cause of independence and set out a vision of a just society liberated from the yoke of the crown. Paine’s pamphlet was the first to speak directly to a mass audience—and his assertive and often caustic style embodied the democratic spirit he advocated. 

The American Crisis (Dec 1776) Volume 1 in a pamphlet series by Paine was read aloud by Geo. Washington, 3 days before the Battle of Trenton. Paine also used references to God, saying that a war against Great Britain would be a war with the support of God.  The first volume famously begins: "These are the times that try men's souls." 

John Wise : A Vindication of the Government of New-England Churches (1717) Reprinted in 1772 - It has been written that Wise's writings and sermons, inspired Jefferson in his draft of the Declaration of Independence. In his works, Wise draws from the Bible and writes that God created all men equal. That the end of all good government is to promote the happiness of all and that taxation without representation is tyranny.

Robert Aitken and the Aitken Bible (1782) - was the first known English-language Bible to be printed in America, and also the only Bible to receive Congressional approval. The British government had long regulated the publication of English Bibles, forcing colonists to import them from Britain or Europe. The war subsequently created a shortage in the colonies. In 1781, near the end of the American Revolution, he petitioned congress to support his plans to print a Bible in English. Aitken’s Bible, sometimes referred to as “The Bible of the Revolution,” and is said to be the first true "American Bible." 

Magna Carta (1215) This version 1297 - Magna Carta (Great Charter) was written by a group of 13th-century barons to protect their rights and property against a tyrannical king. It has long been considered the foundation stone of the British Constitution. America’s Founding Fathers took great inspiration from this medieval pact as they forged the nation’s founding documents—including the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights.

John Winthrop "A Model of Christian Charity" is a sermon, thought to have been delivered on board the ship Arabella on April 8, 1630 while en route to the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In the sermon, he states, "for we must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill. The eyes of all people are upon us." Many John Winthrop has been called "America's Forgotton Founding Father."

The "City on a Hill reference comes from Matthew 5:14 - You are the light of the world. A city located on a hill can't be hidden. Pres-elect John Kennedy used it in a speech in 1961. Ronald Reagan referenced it in multiple speeches including his farewell address and has been used by a number of other politicians.

The Bill of Rights - On June 8, 1789,  James Madison introduced a series of proposed amendments to the newly ratified U.S. Constitution. That summer the House of Representatives debated Madison’s proposal, and on August 24 the House passed 17 amendments to be added to the Constitution and those were sent to the Senate. This draft of those 17 show the Senate revisions and on September 25, Congress agreed on 12 amendments, and they were sent to the states for approval. Of these Articles three through twelve were ratified and became the Bill of Rights on December 15, 1791.

Anti-Federalists Papers is a collection of essays and speeches questioning the ratification of the Constitution. The Anti-Federalists saw in the Constitution threats to rights and liberties so recently won from England. The Anti-Federalists most significant contribution was the push to have a Bill of Rights added to the Constitution.

George Washington's Farewell Address -  Almost prohetically, Washington warns the people that political factions may seek to obstruct the execution of the laws created by the government. He advised American citizens to view themselves as a cohesive unit and avoid political parties and issued a special warning to be wary of attachments and entanglements with other nations. Mindful of the precedent his conduct could set for future presidents, Washington feared that if he were to die while in office, Americans would view the presidency as a lifetime appointment. Instead, he decided to step down from power, providing the standard of a two-term limit that would eventually be enshrined in the Twenty-Second Amendment to the Constitution.

American Flag is the nation's most powerful and enduring symbol, first appearing in 1777 four years before the end of the Revolutionary war. Nearly a century later, Betsy Ross' grandson, first told the story that his grandmother made the first American flag at the request of George Washington.

The Syng Inkstand is a silver inkstand used during the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the United States Constitution in 1787.